We know structures can be used to create user-defined data types in C and C++. But then why we need classes? We can have functions, constructors, etc in structures as well but what differentiates it from classes are lack of abstraction and inheritance(And actually many other things as well). We can hide certain members from outside world(abstraction) in a class but we can't do anything like this in structures. Also, we cannot overload an operator here. For example

struct complex{
    float x,y;
};
// Structure for a complex number of form x+iy(i stands for iota)
complex c1,c2;
c1.x=1;
c1.y=2;
c2.x=3;
c2.y=3;
// c1=1+2i, c2=3+3i
complex c3=c1+c2;//Illegal statement in C because we cannot add these two structures. 

class className{
   private:
       variable declaration;
       function declaration;
   public:
       variable declaration;
       function declaration;
};

1. private: Data members labelled private are only available withing the class.
2. public: Data members are available for the outside world as well.
3. protected: Data members are not available for the whole world but are available to the inherited classes.

By default, all members are private.

1. Abstraction: Data hiding. All those visibility labels are used for abstraction only. We can achieve data hiding using the visibility labels(private)
2. Encapsulation: Data binding. This is just binding various data members and functions into a class. We actually do that, so it's kind of default behaviour.
3. Polymorphism:
4. Inheritance:
5. Overloading:

Question Link: https://cses.fi/problemset/task/1138 ~~~~~

include<bits/stdc++.h>

using namespace std;

define int long long int

const int mxN = 200001; int inf = 1e18; class segTree { private: vectortree; vectora; void buildTree(int i, int st, int end, vector &arr) { if(st == end) { tree[i] = arr[st]; return; }

int mid = st + (end - st) / 2;
    int lchild = 2 * i + 1;
    int rchild = 2 * i + 2;

    buildTree(lchild, st, mid, arr);

    buildTree(rchild, mid + 1, end, arr);

    tree[i] = tree[lchild] + tree[rchild];
}
int queryPrivate(int i, int segStart, int segEnd, int l, int r)
{
    if(segEnd < l || segStart > r)return 0;

    if(segEnd <= r && segStart >= l)
        return tree[i];

    int lchild = 2 * i + 1;
    int rchild = 2 * i + 2;

    int mid = segStart + (segEnd - segStart) / 2;

    int resL = queryPrivate(lchild, segStart, mid, l, r);
    int resR = queryPrivate(rchild, mid + 1, segEnd, l, r);

    return resL + resR;
}
void upd(int i, int st, int end, int ind, int newVal)
{
    if(st == end)
    {
        tree[i] = newVal;
        return;
    }

    int mid = st + (end - st) / 2;

    if(ind <= mid)
        upd(2 * i + 1, st, mid, ind, newVal);
    else
        upd(2 * i + 2, mid + 1, end, ind, newVal);

    tree[i] = tree[2 * i + 1] + tree[2 * i + 2];
}

public: void build(vector &arr) { int n = arr.size(); tree.resize(4 * n + 1); for(int i = 0; i < 4 * n + 1; i++)tree[i] = inf; buildTree(0, 0, n — 1, arr); a = arr; } int queryTree(int l, int r) { int n = a.size(); return queryPrivate(0, 0, n — 1, l, r); }

void updateTree(int indToChange, int newVal)
{
    int n = a.size();
    upd(0, 0, n - 1, indToChange, newVal);
}

}; // Inherited segTree class to Tree class class Tree : public segTree { vectoradj[mxN]; vectorval; vectorin; vectorout; vectoreTour; segTree s; public: Tree(vectorarr) { // cout<<"u"; int n = arr.size(); val.resize(n); in.resize(n); out.resize(n); for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)in[i] = -1; for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)out[i] = -1; val = arr; } void dfs(int src, vector &vis) { vis[src] = 1; eTour.push_back(src); for(auto it : adj[src]) { if(!vis[it]) dfs(it, vis); } eTour.push_back(src); } void eulerTour() { vectorvis(val.size()); dfs(0, vis); for(int i = 0; i < eTour.size(); i++) { if(in[eTour[i]] == -1) in[eTour[i]] = i; else out[eTour[i]] = i; } for(int i = 0; i < eTour.size(); i++) { if(in[eTour[i]]==i) eTour[i] = val[eTour[i]]; else eTour[i] = -val[eTour[i]]; // cout<<eTour[i]<<" "; } // cout<<"\n"; build(eTour); } void addEdge(int x, int y) { adj[x — 1].push_back(y — 1); adj[y — 1].push_back(x — 1); } int query(int node) { node--; return queryTree(0, in[node]); } void update(int node, int x) { node--; updateTree(in[node], x); updateTree(out[node], -x); val[node] = x; } }; int32_t main() { // This is the holy code of the demon AB-DUDE // This is the code of the question : https://cses.fi/problemset/task/1137/ // We used Euler Tour and Segment Trees for this // Just do a Euler tour of type 2 on the tree and make a basic segment tree on the array // Now, we can just use in and out arrays for the positions of the nodes in the euler tour array

int n, q;
cin >> n >> q;
vector<int>a(n);
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)cin >> a[i];

Tree tr(a);
for (int i = 0; i < n - 1; ++i)
{
    int x, y;
    cin >> x >> y;
    tr.addEdge(x, y);
}
tr.eulerTour();
for(int i = 0; i < q; i++)
{
    int t;
    cin >> t;
    if(t == 1)
    {
        int s, x;
        cin >> s >> x;
        tr.update(s, x);
    }
    else
    {
        int s;
        cin >> s;
        cout << tr.query(s) << "\n";
    }
}

return 0;

} ~~~~~